Phylogeography, population genetics and conservation of the European red deer Cervus elaphus

1. During the Last Glacial Maximum, European red deer Cervus elaphus occurred in refugia in Iberia/southern France, Italy, the Balkans and the Carpathians. Most of Europe, including large parts of the east and north-east, is now inhabited by red deer from the western lineage. The eastern lineage is largely confined to south-eastern Europe; a third lineage comprises Sardo-Corsican and Barbary red deer. 2. Sardo-Corsican, Barbary and Mesola red deer are genetically unique units. They exhibit low levels of genetic diversity and deserve particular protection, since conservation strategies should target genetic information. 3. Hybridization between sika Cervus nippon and red deer occurs rarely, but may lead to extensive introgression, particularly in parts of the British Isles. Further expansion of both species may lead to increased hybridization in continental Europe. 4. Although hunting has an impact on red deer gene pools, the main threat today is habitat fragmentation in human-dominated landscapes. The resulting increase in genetic drift and inbreeding reduces variability in isolated populations and may lead to inbreeding depression. To support vital meta-populations, migration corridors should be established.